What if the Confederacy had won the American Civil War?

Although I have focused on Germany in this chapter because it was in fact the German government and its people who planned and implemented the Holocaust, the habits of thought that I have been describing were, with local variants, widespread throughout Europe and the United States. When, for example, English publicists wanted to criticize financial markets and economic structures in the period between 1873 and 1939, they used a rhetoric of Judaism very similar to that of the German commentators we have touched on. An observer of western European politics around 1900, asked to predict where mass political violence against the Jews was most likely to erupt, might well have nominated France. And American citizens, asked to name the greatest threat to the United States in a series of polls taken by the Opinion Research Corporation between 1939 and 1946, consistently chose “the Jews” over the Japanese or the Germans, with fear peaking in June of 1944, just as the Jewish population of Europe was close to fully exterminated. 43
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43. For a comparative study of English and German antifinancial discourses, see Mark Loeffler, “Producers and Parasites: The Critique of Finance in Germany and Britain, 1873–1944,” PhD dissertation (University of Chicago, 2011). On asked to predict, see Johannes Heil, “Antisemitismus, Kulturkampf und Konfession—Die antisemitischen ‘Kulturen’ Frankreichs und Deutschlands im Vergleich,” in Olaf Blaschke and Aram Mattioli, eds., Katholischer Antisemitismus im 19. Jahrhundert Ursachen und Traditionen im internationalen Vergleich (Zurich: Orell Füssli Verlag, 2000). For a study that makes clear just how politically powerful anti-Semitism was in France, see Pierre Birnbaum’s Anti-Semitic Moment: A Tour of France in 1898 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2002). On American citizens, see Charles Herbert Stember et al., Jews in the Mind of America (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 127–129. On fears of a Jewish “fifth column” among U.S. policy and military leaders, see Joseph W. Bendersky, “The Jewish Threat”: Anti-Semitic Politics of the U.S. Army (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 287–348.